Great Pyramid" redirects here. You may have been looking for the Great Pyramid of Cholula or the Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in Mexico. For the three pyramids of Giza, visit the Giza pyramid complex.
The Great Pyramid of Giza is the oldest and largest of the three pyramids in the Giza Necropolis bordering what is now Cairo, Egypt in Africa, and is the only remaining member of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. It is believed to have been built as a tomb for Fourth dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Khufu (hellenized as Χεωψ, Cheops) and constructed over a 20 year period concluding around 2560 BC. The tallest man-made structure in the world for over 3,800 years, it is sometimes called Khufu's Pyramid or the Pyramid of Khufu.
The Great Pyramid of Giza is the main part of a complex setting of buildings that included two mortuary temples in honor of Khufu (one close to the pyramid and one near the Nile), three smaller pyramids for Khufu's wives, an even smaller "satellite" pyramid, a raised causeway connecting the two temples, and small mastaba tombs surrounding the pyramid for nobles. One of the small pyramids contains the tomb of queen Hetepheres (discovered in 1925), sister and wife of Sneferu and the mother of Khufu. There was a town for the workers of Giza, including a cemetery, bakeries, a beer factory and a copper smelting complex. More buildings and complexes are being discovered by The Giza Mapping Project.
A few hundred metres south-west of the Great Pyramid lies the slightly smaller Pyramid of Khafre, one of Khufu's successors who is also commonly considered the builder of the Great Sphinx, and a few hundred metres further south-west is the Pyramid of Menkaure, Khafre's successor, which is about half as tall.
The generally accepted estimated date of its completion is c. 2560 BC.Although this date contradicts radiocarbon dating evidence, it is loosely supported by a lack of archaeological findings for the existence prior to the fourth dynasty of a civilization with sufficient population or technical ability in the area.
Khufu's vizier, Hemon, or Hemiunu, is believed by some to be the architect of the Great Pyramid.
Materials and workforce
Many varied estimates have been made regarding the workforce needed to construct the Great Pyramid. Herodotus, the Greek historian in the 5th century BC, estimated that construction may have required 100,000 workers for 20 years. Recent evidence has been found that suggests the workforce was in fact paid[citation needed], which would require accounting and bureaucratic skills of a high order. Polish architect Wieslaw Kozinski believed that it took as many as 20 men to transport a 1.5-ton stone block from where it was extracted from the ground, to the building site. Based on this, he estimated the workforce to be 300,000 men on the construction site, with an additional 60,000 off-site. 19th century Egyptologist William Flinders Petrie proposed that the workforce was largely composed not of slaves but of the rural Egyptian population, working during periods when the Nile river was flooded and agricultural activity suspended. Egyptologist Miroslav Verner posited that the labor was organized into a hierarchy, consisting of two gangs of 100,000 men, divided into five zaa or phyle of 20,000 men each, which may have been further divided according to the skills of the workers.[5] Some research suggests alternate estimates to the accepted workforce size. For instance, mathematician Kurt Mendelssohn calculated that the workforce may have been 50,000 men at most, while Ludwig Borchardt and Louis Croon placed the number at 36,000. According to Verner, a workforce of no more than 30,000 was needed in the Great Pyramid's construction.
A construction management study (testing) carried out by the firm Daniel, Mann, Johnson, & Mendenhall in association with Mark Lehner and other Egyptologists, estimates that the total project required an average workforce of 14,567 people and a peak workforce of 40,000. Without the use of pulleys, wheels, or iron tools, they surmise the Great Pyramid was completed from start to finish in approximately 10 years.Their critical path analysis study reveals estimates that the number of blocks used in construction was between 2-2.8 million (an average of 2.4 million), but settles on a reduced finished total of 2 million after subtracting the estimated area of the hollow spaces of the chambers and galleries. Most sources agree on this number of blocks somewhere above 2.3 million. The Egyptologists' calculations suggest the workforce could have sustained a rate of 180 blocks per hour (3 blocks/minute) with ten hour work days for putting each individual block in place. They derived these estimates from construction projects that did not use modern machinery. This study fails to take into account however, especially when compared to modern third world construction projects, the logistics and craftsmanship time inherent in constructing a building of nearly unparalleled magnitude with such precision, or among other things, the use of up to 60-80 ton stones being quarried and transported a distance of over 500 miles.
Average core blocks of the pyramid weigh about 1.5 tons each, and the granite blocks used to roof the burial chambers are estimated to weigh up to 80 tons each.[citation needed]In contrast, a Great Pyramid feasibility study relating to the quarrying of the stone was performed in 1978 by Technical Director Merle Booker of the Indiana Limestone Institute of America. Consisting of 33 quarries, the Institute is considered by many architects to be one of the world’s leading authorities on limestone. Using modern equipment, the study concludes:
“Utilizing the entire Indiana Limestone industry’s facilities as they now stand [for 33 quarries], and figuring on tripling present average production, it would take approximately 27 years to quarry, fabricate and ship the total requirements.”
Booker points out the time study assumes sufficient quantities of railroad cars would be available without delay or downtime during this 27 year period and does not factor in the increasing costs of completing the work.
The entire Giza Plateau is believed to have been constructed over the reign of five pharaohs in less than a hundred years. In the hundred years prior to Giza, beginning with Djoser who ruled from 2687-2667 BC, three other massive pyramids were built - the Step pyramid of Saqqara (believed to be the first Egyptian pyramid), the Bent Pyramid, and the Red Pyramid. Also during this period (between 2686 and 2498 BC) the Wadi Al-Garawi dam which used an estimated 100,000 cubic meters of rock and rubblewas built.
The accepted values by Egyptologists bear out the following result: 2,400,000 stones used ÷ 20 years ÷ 365 days per year ÷ 10 work hours per day ÷ 60 minutes per hour = 0.55 stones laid per minute.
Thus no matter how many workers were used or in what configuration, 1.1 blocks on average would have to be put in place every 2 minutes, ten hours a day, 365 days a year for twenty years to complete the Great Pyramid within this time frame. This equation, however, does not take into account among other things the designing, planning, surveying, and leveling the 13 acre site the Great Pyramid sits on.
As Egyptologist Dr. I.E.S. Edwards, former Keeper of Antiquities in the British Museum, said in his book The Pyramids of Egypt; " Cheops, who may have been a megalomaniac, could never, during a reign of about twenty-three years, have erected a building of the size and durability of the Great Pyramid, if technical advances had not enabled his masons to handle stones of very considerable weight and dimensions"
Saturday, March 8, 2008
SHANGRI-LA a fictional place
Shangri-La is a fictional place described in the 1933 novel Lost Horizon by British author James Hilton. In the book, "Shangri-La" is a mystical, harmonious valley, gently guided from a lamasery, enclosed in the western end of the Kunlun Mountains. Shangri-La has become synonymous with any earthly paradise but particularly a mythical Himalayan utopia—a permanently happy land, isolated from the outside world. In the novel Lost Horizon, the people who live at Shangri-La are almost immortal, living years beyond the normal lifespan. The word also evokes the imagery of exoticism of the Orient. The story of Shangri-La is based on the concept of Shambhala, a mystical city in Tibetan Buddhist tradition.
Several locations in the Buddhist Himalaya between northern India and Tibet have claimed to be the basis for Hilton's legend, largely to attract tourism. In China, Tao Qian of the Jin Dynasty described a Shangri-La in his work Story of the Peach Blossom Valley (Chinese: 桃花源記, pinyin: Táohuā Yuán Jì)[citation needed]. The legendary Kun Lun Mountains in Tibet offer other possible Shangri-La valleys.
A popularly believed inspiration for Shangri-La is the Hunza Valley in northern Pakistan, close to the Tibetan border, which Hilton visited a few years before Lost Horizon was published.[1] Being an isolated green valley surrounded by mountains, enclosed on the western end of the Himalayas, it closely matches the description in the novel. A Shangri-La resort in the nearby Skardu valley is a popular tourist attraction.
Today, various places claim the title, such as parts of southern Kham in southwestern Yunnan province, including the tourist destinations of Lijiang and Zhongdian. Places like Sichuan and Tibet also claim the real Shangri-La was in its territory. In 2001, Tibet Autonomous Region put forward a proposal that the three regions optimise all Shangri-la tourism resources and promote them as one. After failed attempts to establish a China Shangri-la Ecological Tourism Zone in 2002 and 2003, government representatives of Sichuan and Yunnan provinces and Tibet Autonomous Region signed a declaration of cooperation in 2004. Also in 2001, Zhongdian County in northwestern Yunnan officially renamed itself Shangri-La County.
Bhutan, which was until now isolated from outside world and has its unique form of Tibetan Buddhism, has been hailed as the last Shangri-La.
Another place that has been thought to have inspired the concept of Shangri-La is the Yarlung Tsangpo Canyon.
TV Presenter and Historian Michael Wood suggests that the legendary Shangri-La is the abandoned city of Tsaparang and its two great temples that were once home to the Kings of Guge in modern Tibet.
There are a number of modern Shangri-La pseudo-legends that have developed since 1933 in the wake of the novel and the film made from it. The Nazis had an enthusiasm for Shangri-La, where they hoped to find an ancient master race, similar to the Nordic race, unspoiled by Buddhism. They sent one expedition to Tibet, led by Ernst Schäfer in 1938.
Another pseudo-legend involves the Ojai Valley as the location for the 1937 Frank Capra film Lost Horizon. The outdoor scenes of the villagers of Shangri-La and a cavorting Ronald Colman and Jane Wyatt were in fact filmed in nearby Sherwood Forest (Westlake Village) and Palm Springs. The exterior of the grand lamasery was built and later dismantled on the Columbia Ranch in Burbank, CA.[2] However, according to film historian Kendall Miller in the photodocumentary bonus feature on the "Lost Horizon" DVD, an aerial shot of Ojai Valley taken from an outlook on Highway 150 was used to represent the Shangri-La valley.
United States President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, being considerably fond of Hilton's novel, named the presidential retreat now known as Camp David "Shangri-La" in 1942. In that April, United States bombers secretly launched from the aircraft carrier Hornet bombed Tokyo in a daring raid led by Colonel "Jimmy" Doolittle. Since Tokyo was far out of range of any American bomber base at the time, there was intense speculation as to where the bombers had come from. President Roosevelt facetiously told a press conference that the bombers had flown from Shangri-La. In line with this pleasantry, one of the aircraft carriers used in the Pacific ocean was subsequently named USS Shangri-La.
In 1937, Lutcher Stark, a prominent Texas philanthropist, started building his own Shangri-La in Orange, Texas. His Shangri-La was a beautiful azalea garden situated along a cypress/tupelo swamp. By 1950, thousands of people were traveling to Orange to visit Shangri La. Every major magazine dealing with gardens published photographs of the beautiful Shangri La in Texas. In 1958, a major snowstorm struck east Texas, destroying thousands of azaleas and closing the garden for forty years.
In 2002, the Stark Foundation began building a new Shangri La Botanical Garden on the original site. The new gardens will display the great diversity of plants found throughout the world. They will mirror Stark's Shangri-La in an area called the Garden of the Blue Moon.
Lake Shangri-La is a mid-sized lake in south-eastern Wisconsin (Kenosha County) which is connected to Bennet Lake and is populated by people of all economic status.
Shangri-La is also a roadside attraction located near Prospect Hill, North Carolina that resembles a miniature village made entirely of stone, brick, and other materials.
Shangri-La is also a map in Unreal Tournament III.
"Shangri-La" is a song written by Ray Davies of The Kinks.
"Shangri-la" is also a song by the japanese group Chatmonchy, realised in 2006, and put in the albun Seimeiryoku in 2007.
The Wraith:Shangri-la is an album name for an alternative rap group called Insane Clown Posse.
Shangri-La is the name given to a collection of multi-national food kiosks located outside Yale-New Haven Hospital in New Haven, Connecticut.
Several locations in the Buddhist Himalaya between northern India and Tibet have claimed to be the basis for Hilton's legend, largely to attract tourism. In China, Tao Qian of the Jin Dynasty described a Shangri-La in his work Story of the Peach Blossom Valley (Chinese: 桃花源記, pinyin: Táohuā Yuán Jì)[citation needed]. The legendary Kun Lun Mountains in Tibet offer other possible Shangri-La valleys.
A popularly believed inspiration for Shangri-La is the Hunza Valley in northern Pakistan, close to the Tibetan border, which Hilton visited a few years before Lost Horizon was published.[1] Being an isolated green valley surrounded by mountains, enclosed on the western end of the Himalayas, it closely matches the description in the novel. A Shangri-La resort in the nearby Skardu valley is a popular tourist attraction.
Today, various places claim the title, such as parts of southern Kham in southwestern Yunnan province, including the tourist destinations of Lijiang and Zhongdian. Places like Sichuan and Tibet also claim the real Shangri-La was in its territory. In 2001, Tibet Autonomous Region put forward a proposal that the three regions optimise all Shangri-la tourism resources and promote them as one. After failed attempts to establish a China Shangri-la Ecological Tourism Zone in 2002 and 2003, government representatives of Sichuan and Yunnan provinces and Tibet Autonomous Region signed a declaration of cooperation in 2004. Also in 2001, Zhongdian County in northwestern Yunnan officially renamed itself Shangri-La County.
Bhutan, which was until now isolated from outside world and has its unique form of Tibetan Buddhism, has been hailed as the last Shangri-La.
Another place that has been thought to have inspired the concept of Shangri-La is the Yarlung Tsangpo Canyon.
TV Presenter and Historian Michael Wood suggests that the legendary Shangri-La is the abandoned city of Tsaparang and its two great temples that were once home to the Kings of Guge in modern Tibet.
There are a number of modern Shangri-La pseudo-legends that have developed since 1933 in the wake of the novel and the film made from it. The Nazis had an enthusiasm for Shangri-La, where they hoped to find an ancient master race, similar to the Nordic race, unspoiled by Buddhism. They sent one expedition to Tibet, led by Ernst Schäfer in 1938.
Another pseudo-legend involves the Ojai Valley as the location for the 1937 Frank Capra film Lost Horizon. The outdoor scenes of the villagers of Shangri-La and a cavorting Ronald Colman and Jane Wyatt were in fact filmed in nearby Sherwood Forest (Westlake Village) and Palm Springs. The exterior of the grand lamasery was built and later dismantled on the Columbia Ranch in Burbank, CA.[2] However, according to film historian Kendall Miller in the photodocumentary bonus feature on the "Lost Horizon" DVD, an aerial shot of Ojai Valley taken from an outlook on Highway 150 was used to represent the Shangri-La valley.
United States President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, being considerably fond of Hilton's novel, named the presidential retreat now known as Camp David "Shangri-La" in 1942. In that April, United States bombers secretly launched from the aircraft carrier Hornet bombed Tokyo in a daring raid led by Colonel "Jimmy" Doolittle. Since Tokyo was far out of range of any American bomber base at the time, there was intense speculation as to where the bombers had come from. President Roosevelt facetiously told a press conference that the bombers had flown from Shangri-La. In line with this pleasantry, one of the aircraft carriers used in the Pacific ocean was subsequently named USS Shangri-La.
In 1937, Lutcher Stark, a prominent Texas philanthropist, started building his own Shangri-La in Orange, Texas. His Shangri-La was a beautiful azalea garden situated along a cypress/tupelo swamp. By 1950, thousands of people were traveling to Orange to visit Shangri La. Every major magazine dealing with gardens published photographs of the beautiful Shangri La in Texas. In 1958, a major snowstorm struck east Texas, destroying thousands of azaleas and closing the garden for forty years.
In 2002, the Stark Foundation began building a new Shangri La Botanical Garden on the original site. The new gardens will display the great diversity of plants found throughout the world. They will mirror Stark's Shangri-La in an area called the Garden of the Blue Moon.
Lake Shangri-La is a mid-sized lake in south-eastern Wisconsin (Kenosha County) which is connected to Bennet Lake and is populated by people of all economic status.
Shangri-La is also a roadside attraction located near Prospect Hill, North Carolina that resembles a miniature village made entirely of stone, brick, and other materials.
Shangri-La is also a map in Unreal Tournament III.
"Shangri-La" is a song written by Ray Davies of The Kinks.
"Shangri-la" is also a song by the japanese group Chatmonchy, realised in 2006, and put in the albun Seimeiryoku in 2007.
The Wraith:Shangri-la is an album name for an alternative rap group called Insane Clown Posse.
Shangri-La is the name given to a collection of multi-national food kiosks located outside Yale-New Haven Hospital in New Haven, Connecticut.
Friday, March 7, 2008
Kiyomizu-dera
Otowa-san Kiyomizu-dera (音羽山 清水寺, Otowa-san Kiyomizu-dera?) is a Unesco World Heritage listed site in the Eastern Kyoto region of Higashiyama and is one of the best known sights of the city.
The temple dates back to 798, but the present buildings were constructed in 1633. The temple takes its name from the waterfall within the complex, which runs off the nearby hills. Kiyomizu (清水) means pure water, clear water or limpid water. It is notable for its vast veranda, supported by hundreds of pillars, that juts out over the hillside and offers impressive views of the city. The popular expression "to jump off the stage at Kiyomizu" (「清水の舞台から飛び降りる」) is the Japanese equivalent of the English expression "to take the plunge". This refers to an Edo period tradition that held that, if one were to survive jumping from the stage, one's wish would be granted
The city of Kyoto as seen from Kiyomizu-deraSurvival appears plausible: The lush vegetation below the platform might cushion the fall of a lucky pilgrim, though the practice is now prohibited. 234 jumps were recorded in the Edo period and, of those, 85.4% survived. The fall is indeed only 13 meters---which remains impressive for a wooden construction.
Beneath the main hall is the waterfall Otowa-no-taki, where three channels of water drop into a pond. Visitors to the temple collect the water, which is believed to have therapeutic properties, from the waterfall in metal cups or commemorative plastic cups. It is said that drinking the water of the three streams confers health, longevity, and success in studies.
Rear view of Pagoda and adjacent buildingThe temple complex contains several other shrines, notably Jishu-jinja, dedicated to Okuninushino-Mikoto, a god of love and "good matches". Jishu-jinja possesses a pair of "love stones" placed 18 meters apart, which lonely visitors attempt to walk between with their eyes closed. Success in reaching the other stone, eyes closed, is taken as a presage that the pilgrim will find love. One can be assisted in the crossing, but this is taken to mean that an intermediary will be needed. The person's romantic interest can assist them as well.
The complex also includes all the fixtures of a popular temple, being one of the most-visited attractions of the city: hawkers offering various talismans, incense, and o-mikuji (paper fortunes ranging from "great fortune" to "great ill") abound. The site is particularly popular during festivals (especially New Year's and o-bon in the summer) when additional booths fill the grounds selling traditional holiday foodstuffs, among other things, and the crowds are immense. (Indeed, the high popularity of the place means that tourists will find it difficult to take pictures on the main temple's platform.)
The temple is also a particular haven for students wishing the aid of deities in graduation, and is well known for having trees (and backdrops, etc.) covered with paper wishes tied there by the hopeful.
The temple dates back to 798, but the present buildings were constructed in 1633. The temple takes its name from the waterfall within the complex, which runs off the nearby hills. Kiyomizu (清水) means pure water, clear water or limpid water. It is notable for its vast veranda, supported by hundreds of pillars, that juts out over the hillside and offers impressive views of the city. The popular expression "to jump off the stage at Kiyomizu" (「清水の舞台から飛び降りる」) is the Japanese equivalent of the English expression "to take the plunge". This refers to an Edo period tradition that held that, if one were to survive jumping from the stage, one's wish would be granted
The city of Kyoto as seen from Kiyomizu-deraSurvival appears plausible: The lush vegetation below the platform might cushion the fall of a lucky pilgrim, though the practice is now prohibited. 234 jumps were recorded in the Edo period and, of those, 85.4% survived. The fall is indeed only 13 meters---which remains impressive for a wooden construction.
Beneath the main hall is the waterfall Otowa-no-taki, where three channels of water drop into a pond. Visitors to the temple collect the water, which is believed to have therapeutic properties, from the waterfall in metal cups or commemorative plastic cups. It is said that drinking the water of the three streams confers health, longevity, and success in studies.
Rear view of Pagoda and adjacent buildingThe temple complex contains several other shrines, notably Jishu-jinja, dedicated to Okuninushino-Mikoto, a god of love and "good matches". Jishu-jinja possesses a pair of "love stones" placed 18 meters apart, which lonely visitors attempt to walk between with their eyes closed. Success in reaching the other stone, eyes closed, is taken as a presage that the pilgrim will find love. One can be assisted in the crossing, but this is taken to mean that an intermediary will be needed. The person's romantic interest can assist them as well.
The complex also includes all the fixtures of a popular temple, being one of the most-visited attractions of the city: hawkers offering various talismans, incense, and o-mikuji (paper fortunes ranging from "great fortune" to "great ill") abound. The site is particularly popular during festivals (especially New Year's and o-bon in the summer) when additional booths fill the grounds selling traditional holiday foodstuffs, among other things, and the crowds are immense. (Indeed, the high popularity of the place means that tourists will find it difficult to take pictures on the main temple's platform.)
The temple is also a particular haven for students wishing the aid of deities in graduation, and is well known for having trees (and backdrops, etc.) covered with paper wishes tied there by the hopeful.
Thursday, March 6, 2008
Colosseum
The Colosseum or Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and engineering.
Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus, with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96).[1] The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).
Originally capable of seating around 50,000 spectators, the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles. It remained in use for nearly 500 years with the last recorded games being held there as late as the 6th century. As well as the traditional gladiatorial games, many other public spectacles were held there, such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building eventually ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such varied purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry and a Christian shrine.
Although it is now in a ruined condition due to damage caused by earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum has long been seen as an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. Today it is one of modern Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession to the amphitheatre.
The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.
The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name.This name is still used frequently in modern English, but it is generally unknown. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic. This name was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[citation needed]
The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times and substituted with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.
Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus, with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96).[1] The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).
Originally capable of seating around 50,000 spectators, the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles. It remained in use for nearly 500 years with the last recorded games being held there as late as the 6th century. As well as the traditional gladiatorial games, many other public spectacles were held there, such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building eventually ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such varied purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry and a Christian shrine.
Although it is now in a ruined condition due to damage caused by earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum has long been seen as an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. Today it is one of modern Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession to the amphitheatre.
The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.
The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name.This name is still used frequently in modern English, but it is generally unknown. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic. This name was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[citation needed]
The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times and substituted with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.
Timbuktu
Timbuktu (Archaic English: Timbuctoo; Koyra Chiini: Tumbutu; French: Tombouctou) is a city in Tombouctou Region, in the West African nation of Mali. It is home to the prestigious Sankore University and other madrasas, and was an intellectual and spiritual capital and centre for the propagation of Islam throughout Africa in the 15th and 16th centuries. Its three great mosques, Djingareyber, Sankore and Sidi Yahya, recall Timbuktu's golden age. Although continuously restored, these monuments are today under threat from desertification. Timbuktu is primarily made of mud.
Timbuktu is populated by Songhay, Tuareg, Fulani, and Mandé people, and is about 15 km north of the Niger River. It is also at the intersection of an east–west and a north–south Trans-Saharan trade across the Sahara to Araouane. It was important historically (and still is today) as an entrepot for rock-salt from Taoudenni.
Its geographical setting made it a natural meeting point for nearby African populations and nomadic Berber and Arab peoples from the north. Its long history as a trading outpost that linked west Africa with Berber, Arab, and Jewish traders throughout north Africa, and thereby indirectly with traders from Europe, has given it a fabled status, and in the West it was for long a metaphor for exotic, distant lands: "from here to Timbuktu."
Timbuktu's long-lasting contribution to Islamic and world civilization is scholarship. By the fourteenth century, important books were written and copied in Timbuktu, establishing the city as the centre of a significant written tradition in Africa.
Tales of Timbuktu's fabulous wealth helped prompt European exploration of the west coast of Africa. Among the earliest descriptions of Timbuktu are those of Leo Africanus, Ibn Battuta and Shabeni.
The place name is said to come from a Tuareg woman named Buktu who dug a well in the area where the city stands today; hence "Timbuktu", which means "Buktu's well".
Timbuktu is populated by Songhay, Tuareg, Fulani, and Mandé people, and is about 15 km north of the Niger River. It is also at the intersection of an east–west and a north–south Trans-Saharan trade across the Sahara to Araouane. It was important historically (and still is today) as an entrepot for rock-salt from Taoudenni.
Its geographical setting made it a natural meeting point for nearby African populations and nomadic Berber and Arab peoples from the north. Its long history as a trading outpost that linked west Africa with Berber, Arab, and Jewish traders throughout north Africa, and thereby indirectly with traders from Europe, has given it a fabled status, and in the West it was for long a metaphor for exotic, distant lands: "from here to Timbuktu."
Timbuktu's long-lasting contribution to Islamic and world civilization is scholarship. By the fourteenth century, important books were written and copied in Timbuktu, establishing the city as the centre of a significant written tradition in Africa.
Tales of Timbuktu's fabulous wealth helped prompt European exploration of the west coast of Africa. Among the earliest descriptions of Timbuktu are those of Leo Africanus, Ibn Battuta and Shabeni.
The place name is said to come from a Tuareg woman named Buktu who dug a well in the area where the city stands today; hence "Timbuktu", which means "Buktu's well".
Friday, February 29, 2008
stonehange
Stonehenge is a magnificent Neolithic monument near Amesbury, Wiltshire, built high on the windswept chalky Salisbury Plain. It is now widely accepted that there were three constructional phases, beginning around 2950 BC to 1500 BC.
The reason for Stonehenge remains a perplexing puzzle - was it built as a pagan temple - a sacred place for ceremonies or rites of worship involving the sun or moon, or intended as a calendar or an astronomical observatory? Many long to find out about the Stonehenge mystery or learn more about the ancient rites that were carried out at Stonehenge by our ancestors.
The prehistoric stone circle was believed to have been erected around 2600 BC, and in various stages. Archaeologists continue to discover more about how these vast masses of stone were hauled into place and when, but we will never really know what Stonehenge was used for.
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Stonehenge - Temple of the Sun
During the midsummer solstice we gaze out of the sacred circle to see the sun rise over the Heel Stone, and the first rays shine into the centre of the monument between the stones of the trilithon horseshoe. Was this seen as a visual re-enactment of the sacred marriage between Heaven and Earth? ...the Sun God's rays penetrating the Earth Mother - the stone circle, with the Heel stone casting a powerful phallic shadow.
Some believe the Heel, or Hele, stone - an outlying sarsen - was originally part of a pair that was intended to perfectly frame the midsummer sunrise. The Anglo Saxon verb 'helan' meaning 'to conceal' could be connected with the naming of this stone - it conceals the sun rising on the summer solstice.
At the midwinter solstice the setting sun sinks between the two uprights of the largest trilithon and behind the altar stone - thought by many to symbolize the death of the year. The shortest day of the year would have been important to a community whose livelihood depended heavily on agriculture. The winter solstice brought reassurance that Spring would again follow, and that life and growth would continue.
There are many stellar correlations as well as the sun and moon alignments at Stonehenge. There are solar alignment points not only within the stone circle, but beyond these with the outlying Heel and Slaughter stones.
Stonehenge - the ancient Lourdes
Timothy Darvill, professor of archaeology at Bournemouth University, has recently revealed research that he believes shows that Stonehenge was an ancient healing place. In his new book 'Stonehenge: The Biography of a Landscape' the professor cites that human remains excavated from burial mounds near Stonehenge, reveal that many of the buried had been ill prior to their death. The remains also seem to have come from far and wide, like the Amesbury Archer who originated from what is now known as Switzerland. The professor believes that Stonehenge would have been mainly used during the winter solstice, when our ancestors believed it was occupied by Apollo, the Greek and Roman god of healing.
Layamon's poem, 'Brut', written around AD1215 seems to reinforce this use of Stonehenge, and is one of the earliest megalithic poems.
The stones are great
And magic power they have
Men that are sick
Fare to that stone
And they wash that stone
And with that water bathe away their sickness
Lunar temple
Some believe that the early Stonehenge was re-aligned into a solar monument instead of being a pointer for lunar movements. This was apparently achieved by moving the entrance constructed thousands of years before and re-aligning the axis, so the focus became solar.
The rising moon was believed to have been seen as a symbol of ancestral spirits being liberated from their bones and earthly existence. The lunar alignment becomes apparent with the most northerly rising of the full moon at mid-winter.
The Altar Stone
This large stone is not a bluestone or sarsen. It is micaceous sandstone - containing thousands of light reflective particles of shiny mica. Though this important stone is now fallen and we can only see the upper surface, when it was standing 3 metres high inside the circle it may have acted like a mirror reflecting back the rays when the midsummer sunrise shone into the centre of Stonehenge.
Was this intended as an offering of the energizing light and warmth back to the Sun God from the people's temple?
Construction
Although Stonehenge is not the world's largest stone circle (Avebury, constructed between 2800 and 2700 B.C.is the largest - 1,401 feet in diameter), it is the only one that has horizontal lintels around the top.
'Stonehenge' is believed to be the Old English word for 'hanging stone'. The lintels are fixed end to end by tongue and groove joints and firmly held on top of the standing sarsens with mortice and tenon joints.
Such construction skill is one of the reasons that part of the circle is still standing after thousands of years. Unlike other stone circles Stonehenge reveals careful shaping, smoothing and tapering of the stones. The outer circle's lintels are even curved to follow the line. The Heel Stone is the only naturally shaped sarsen. Stonehenge is more than a stone circle - it is architecture with aesthetic appeal, and the wonder of Western Europe. click on image for larger version
'The Druid's groves are gone - so much the better.
Stonehenge is not, but what the devil is it?'
Don Juan - Lord Byron, 1823
Aubrey Holes
Seventeenth-century antiquary John Aubrey discovered a ring of fifty-six shallow pits - many containing cremated human bones. The holes were evenly spaced and were about three feet deep.
Druid connection
It is believed from the writings of Romans such as Tacitus and Julius Caesar that the Druids were a priesthood of the early Celtic religion. Archaeological findings date Stonehenge to more than 1,000 years before the rise of Druidism.
However, in the 17th Century John Aubrey made the connection of the ancient Druids to Stonehenge. This idea was very popular in the Romantic Age and produced wonderful poems and paintings of Stonehenge.
Other antiquarians such as William Stukeley also suggested the evocative standing stones were a Druidical temple. The connection persists with myths of Pagan Slaughter Stone rituals - in reality believed by archaeologists to be a fallen standing stone.
The gathering of the Druids from various orders during the solstices at Stonehenge brings great interest from the public and media. Their peaceful ceremonies enhance the sacredness and spiritualism of this prehistoric temple, as like others they celebrate the powerful energy of this noble monument.
Bluestones
Another mystery is the use of bluestones - so called because they look blue when wet - from the Preseli Mountains in South Wales. The stones weighed up to 4 tons each and about 80 blocks and slabs were used. They are believed to have been transported the 240 miles to Salisbury Plain by roller and sledge on land, and on rafts along the coast. Perhaps the stones came from another circle or their location was believed to be of spiritual or magical importance, we can only guess.
Recently, archaeologists have - through isotope analysis of teeth - discovered that three of the remains found in a 2,300 year-old grave close to the Stonehenge site are most probably Welshmen, and were likely to have been involved in the construction of the monument.
Merlin and the Giants' Dance
In the 12th Century Geoffrey of Monmouth's History of the Kings of Britain stated that the stones were originally brought from Africa to Ireland by a race of giants. Later the wizard Merlin apparently moved the standing stones - the 'Giants' Dance' as Geoffrey called them - from Killaraus, a mountain in Ireland, to Salisbury Plain. They were to provide 'an everlasting monument' to the nobles that had been massacred by the Saxons.
People's Temple
The last man to own Stonehenge was Cecil Chubb - he purchased the stones in 1915 for £6,600.
Three years later he made a gift of the stone circle to the nation, with the proviso that admission to locals should be free. This continues today and includes the residents of all the parishes of the former Amesbury Rural District. Close visitor contact with the stones has been prohibited since 1978, apart from the annual Open Access for the solstices and out-of-hours private visits - where you can step inside the fenced path encircling the stones for a price.
Some suspect that Stonehenge was built for elite gatherings, as experts believe that most sound would have remained inside the circle. Perhaps the priests controlled a larger crowd by climbing up onto the great trilithon where they could be seen and heard by all? We can only guess at the motives behind the creation of Stonehenge's colossal magnificence. It remains an amazing focal point in a landscape of burial mounds and barrows - a ritual space and monument - a celebration of man's abilities on earth.
No conclusive answers have solved the paradox of this evocative megalithic art and it continues to fascinate generations remaining one of the world's most important Neolithic sites. These immense portals are a door to our past. The henge will remain a palpable yet mystical connection. For many, the reason behind this awe-inspiring creation does not matter - it belongs to us all, a 'people's temple' - a place of sanctity, and remains the world's best-loved stone circle.
Stonehenge mythology
The stones are believed to be petrified dancing giants who were caught in a sunbeam. The stone circle is said to resemble the giants holding hands, and in folklore is known as the 'Giants' Ring'.
The stones were renown for their healing properties. If you sat under the stones and water was poured over them then your wounds would be healed.
It is supposedly impossible to count all the stones. The devil once bet that no one in the nearby village would be able to come up with the right answer. However, a monk replied 'more than could be told'. The devil angrily threw one of the stones at the monk and it bounced off the back of his foot - the outlying stone was then named the Heel Stone.
The reason for Stonehenge remains a perplexing puzzle - was it built as a pagan temple - a sacred place for ceremonies or rites of worship involving the sun or moon, or intended as a calendar or an astronomical observatory? Many long to find out about the Stonehenge mystery or learn more about the ancient rites that were carried out at Stonehenge by our ancestors.
The prehistoric stone circle was believed to have been erected around 2600 BC, and in various stages. Archaeologists continue to discover more about how these vast masses of stone were hauled into place and when, but we will never really know what Stonehenge was used for.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Stonehenge - Temple of the Sun
During the midsummer solstice we gaze out of the sacred circle to see the sun rise over the Heel Stone, and the first rays shine into the centre of the monument between the stones of the trilithon horseshoe. Was this seen as a visual re-enactment of the sacred marriage between Heaven and Earth? ...the Sun God's rays penetrating the Earth Mother - the stone circle, with the Heel stone casting a powerful phallic shadow.
Some believe the Heel, or Hele, stone - an outlying sarsen - was originally part of a pair that was intended to perfectly frame the midsummer sunrise. The Anglo Saxon verb 'helan' meaning 'to conceal' could be connected with the naming of this stone - it conceals the sun rising on the summer solstice.
At the midwinter solstice the setting sun sinks between the two uprights of the largest trilithon and behind the altar stone - thought by many to symbolize the death of the year. The shortest day of the year would have been important to a community whose livelihood depended heavily on agriculture. The winter solstice brought reassurance that Spring would again follow, and that life and growth would continue.
There are many stellar correlations as well as the sun and moon alignments at Stonehenge. There are solar alignment points not only within the stone circle, but beyond these with the outlying Heel and Slaughter stones.
Stonehenge - the ancient Lourdes
Timothy Darvill, professor of archaeology at Bournemouth University, has recently revealed research that he believes shows that Stonehenge was an ancient healing place. In his new book 'Stonehenge: The Biography of a Landscape' the professor cites that human remains excavated from burial mounds near Stonehenge, reveal that many of the buried had been ill prior to their death. The remains also seem to have come from far and wide, like the Amesbury Archer who originated from what is now known as Switzerland. The professor believes that Stonehenge would have been mainly used during the winter solstice, when our ancestors believed it was occupied by Apollo, the Greek and Roman god of healing.
Layamon's poem, 'Brut', written around AD1215 seems to reinforce this use of Stonehenge, and is one of the earliest megalithic poems.
The stones are great
And magic power they have
Men that are sick
Fare to that stone
And they wash that stone
And with that water bathe away their sickness
Lunar temple
Some believe that the early Stonehenge was re-aligned into a solar monument instead of being a pointer for lunar movements. This was apparently achieved by moving the entrance constructed thousands of years before and re-aligning the axis, so the focus became solar.
The rising moon was believed to have been seen as a symbol of ancestral spirits being liberated from their bones and earthly existence. The lunar alignment becomes apparent with the most northerly rising of the full moon at mid-winter.
The Altar Stone
This large stone is not a bluestone or sarsen. It is micaceous sandstone - containing thousands of light reflective particles of shiny mica. Though this important stone is now fallen and we can only see the upper surface, when it was standing 3 metres high inside the circle it may have acted like a mirror reflecting back the rays when the midsummer sunrise shone into the centre of Stonehenge.
Was this intended as an offering of the energizing light and warmth back to the Sun God from the people's temple?
Construction
Although Stonehenge is not the world's largest stone circle (Avebury, constructed between 2800 and 2700 B.C.is the largest - 1,401 feet in diameter), it is the only one that has horizontal lintels around the top.
'Stonehenge' is believed to be the Old English word for 'hanging stone'. The lintels are fixed end to end by tongue and groove joints and firmly held on top of the standing sarsens with mortice and tenon joints.
Such construction skill is one of the reasons that part of the circle is still standing after thousands of years. Unlike other stone circles Stonehenge reveals careful shaping, smoothing and tapering of the stones. The outer circle's lintels are even curved to follow the line. The Heel Stone is the only naturally shaped sarsen. Stonehenge is more than a stone circle - it is architecture with aesthetic appeal, and the wonder of Western Europe. click on image for larger version
'The Druid's groves are gone - so much the better.
Stonehenge is not, but what the devil is it?'
Don Juan - Lord Byron, 1823
Aubrey Holes
Seventeenth-century antiquary John Aubrey discovered a ring of fifty-six shallow pits - many containing cremated human bones. The holes were evenly spaced and were about three feet deep.
Druid connection
It is believed from the writings of Romans such as Tacitus and Julius Caesar that the Druids were a priesthood of the early Celtic religion. Archaeological findings date Stonehenge to more than 1,000 years before the rise of Druidism.
However, in the 17th Century John Aubrey made the connection of the ancient Druids to Stonehenge. This idea was very popular in the Romantic Age and produced wonderful poems and paintings of Stonehenge.
Other antiquarians such as William Stukeley also suggested the evocative standing stones were a Druidical temple. The connection persists with myths of Pagan Slaughter Stone rituals - in reality believed by archaeologists to be a fallen standing stone.
The gathering of the Druids from various orders during the solstices at Stonehenge brings great interest from the public and media. Their peaceful ceremonies enhance the sacredness and spiritualism of this prehistoric temple, as like others they celebrate the powerful energy of this noble monument.
Bluestones
Another mystery is the use of bluestones - so called because they look blue when wet - from the Preseli Mountains in South Wales. The stones weighed up to 4 tons each and about 80 blocks and slabs were used. They are believed to have been transported the 240 miles to Salisbury Plain by roller and sledge on land, and on rafts along the coast. Perhaps the stones came from another circle or their location was believed to be of spiritual or magical importance, we can only guess.
Recently, archaeologists have - through isotope analysis of teeth - discovered that three of the remains found in a 2,300 year-old grave close to the Stonehenge site are most probably Welshmen, and were likely to have been involved in the construction of the monument.
Merlin and the Giants' Dance
In the 12th Century Geoffrey of Monmouth's History of the Kings of Britain stated that the stones were originally brought from Africa to Ireland by a race of giants. Later the wizard Merlin apparently moved the standing stones - the 'Giants' Dance' as Geoffrey called them - from Killaraus, a mountain in Ireland, to Salisbury Plain. They were to provide 'an everlasting monument' to the nobles that had been massacred by the Saxons.
People's Temple
The last man to own Stonehenge was Cecil Chubb - he purchased the stones in 1915 for £6,600.
Three years later he made a gift of the stone circle to the nation, with the proviso that admission to locals should be free. This continues today and includes the residents of all the parishes of the former Amesbury Rural District. Close visitor contact with the stones has been prohibited since 1978, apart from the annual Open Access for the solstices and out-of-hours private visits - where you can step inside the fenced path encircling the stones for a price.
Some suspect that Stonehenge was built for elite gatherings, as experts believe that most sound would have remained inside the circle. Perhaps the priests controlled a larger crowd by climbing up onto the great trilithon where they could be seen and heard by all? We can only guess at the motives behind the creation of Stonehenge's colossal magnificence. It remains an amazing focal point in a landscape of burial mounds and barrows - a ritual space and monument - a celebration of man's abilities on earth.
No conclusive answers have solved the paradox of this evocative megalithic art and it continues to fascinate generations remaining one of the world's most important Neolithic sites. These immense portals are a door to our past. The henge will remain a palpable yet mystical connection. For many, the reason behind this awe-inspiring creation does not matter - it belongs to us all, a 'people's temple' - a place of sanctity, and remains the world's best-loved stone circle.
Stonehenge mythology
The stones are believed to be petrified dancing giants who were caught in a sunbeam. The stone circle is said to resemble the giants holding hands, and in folklore is known as the 'Giants' Ring'.
The stones were renown for their healing properties. If you sat under the stones and water was poured over them then your wounds would be healed.
It is supposedly impossible to count all the stones. The devil once bet that no one in the nearby village would be able to come up with the right answer. However, a monk replied 'more than could be told'. The devil angrily threw one of the stones at the monk and it bounced off the back of his foot - the outlying stone was then named the Heel Stone.
Stonehenge
Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument located in the English county of Wiltshire, about 8 miles (13 km) north of Salisbury. One of the most famous prehistoric sites in the world, Stonehenge is composed of earthworks surrounding a circular setting of large standing stones. Archaeologists believe that the standing stones were erected around 2200 BC and the surrounding circular earth bank and ditch, which constitute the earliest phase of the monument, have been dated to about 3100 BC. The site and its surroundings were added to the UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites in 1986 in a co-listing with Avebury henge monument, and it is also a legally protected Scheduled Ancient Monument. Stonehenge itself is owned by the Crown and managed by English Heritage while the surrounding land is owned by the National Trust.
The Stonehenge complex was built in several construction phases spanning at least 3000 years, although there is evidence for activity both before and afterwards on the site, perhaps extending its time frame to 6500 years.
Dating and understanding the various phases of activity at Stonehenge is not a simple task; it is complicated by poorly kept early excavation records, surprisingly few accurate scientific dates and the disturbance of the natural chalk by periglacial effects and animal burrowing. The modern phasing most generally agreed by archaeologists is detailed below. Features mentioned in the text are numbered and shown on the plan, right, which illustrates the site as of 2004. The plan omits the trilithon lintels for clarity. Holes that no longer, or never, contained stones are shown as open circles and stones visible today are shown coloured.
Stonehenge was produced by a culture with no written language, and at great historical remove from the first cultures that did leave written records. Many aspects of Stonehenge remain subject to debate. This multiplicity of theories, some of them very colourful, is often called the "mystery of Stonehenge."
The Stonehenge complex was built in several construction phases spanning at least 3000 years, although there is evidence for activity both before and afterwards on the site, perhaps extending its time frame to 6500 years.
Dating and understanding the various phases of activity at Stonehenge is not a simple task; it is complicated by poorly kept early excavation records, surprisingly few accurate scientific dates and the disturbance of the natural chalk by periglacial effects and animal burrowing. The modern phasing most generally agreed by archaeologists is detailed below. Features mentioned in the text are numbered and shown on the plan, right, which illustrates the site as of 2004. The plan omits the trilithon lintels for clarity. Holes that no longer, or never, contained stones are shown as open circles and stones visible today are shown coloured.
Stonehenge was produced by a culture with no written language, and at great historical remove from the first cultures that did leave written records. Many aspects of Stonehenge remain subject to debate. This multiplicity of theories, some of them very colourful, is often called the "mystery of Stonehenge."
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